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Patrick grew up in Long Beach Read More, July 15, 1925 - September 21, 2022 Edward Wilson Dobson (July 15, 1925 to September 21, 2022) has passed, serenely without pain, or fear in his 97th year. [202] After Reconstruction ended and White elected officials disenfranchised Blacks and imposed Jim Crow laws, they consistently underfunded Black institutions, including the schools. Although Johnson had sympathy for the plight of the freedmen, he was against federal assistance. [91], The freedmen, with the strong backing of the Freedmen's Bureau, rejected gang-labor work patterns that had been used in slavery. The first critical step was the registration of voters according to guidelines established by Congress and interpreted by Generals Sheridan and Charles Griffin. [22], Arbus attended the Ethical Culture Fieldston School, a prep school. A loving husband, (great) grandfather, father, father-in-law, brother-in-law and uncle, Paul will be remembered by his family mostly for the daily lessons he taught Read More, William Leo (Bill) Donnelly May 13, 1936 - May 15, 2022 Bill Donnelly passed away on May 15th after battling multiple myeloma for over six years. by Darryl Lara published November 1, 2022 November 1, 2022. . Republican political disputes in Georgia split the party and enabled the Redeemers to take over. Finally, federal support helped certify the Republican as governor. Generally, scholars periodize federal Reconstruction as starting in the 1860s and ending in the late 19th century. "Learning to Read: the Epic Narratives of Diane Arbus and August Sander". The argument made by the taxpayers, however, was plausible and it may be conceded that, upon the whole, they were about right; for no doubt it would have been much easier upon the taxpayers to have increased at that time the interest-bearing debt of the state than to have increased the tax rate. [261][223][262][263], The Beardian interpretation of the causes of the Civil War downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. [267][268][269] The younger scholars conclusively demonstrated that there was no unified economic policy on the part of the dominant Republican Party. This veto shocked the congressional Radicals. Vice President Andrew Johnson had taken a hard line and spoke of hanging Confederates, but when he succeeded Lincoln as president, Johnson took a much softer position, pardoning many Confederate leaders and other former Confederates. The Civil War had been financed primarily by issuing short-term and long-term bonds and loans, plus inflation caused by printing paper money, plus new taxes. Congress, on December 4, 1865, rejected Johnson's moderate presidential Reconstruction, and organized the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, a 15-member panel to devise Reconstruction requirements for the Southern states to be restored to the Union. For example, they see the competitive market as protecting disenfranchised blacks and are less likely to accept the idea that there was exploitation by merchant monopolists."[284]. The Fourteenth Amendment, which gave the Negro his citizenship, Beard found significant primarily as a result of a conspiracy of a few legislative draftsmen friendly to corporations to use the supposed elevation of the blacks as a cover for a fundamental law giving strong protection to business corporations against regulation by state government. Historian William McFeely explained that although the constitutional amendments and civil rights legislation on their own merit were remarkable achievements, no permanent government agency whose specific purpose was civil rights enforcement had been created. Taxes historically had been much lower in the South than in the North, reflecting the lack of government investment by the communities. The bill did not give freedmen the right to vote. The committee completed its 13-volume report in February 1872. Federal troops however were kept in West Virginia through 1868 in order to control civil unrest in several areas throughout the state. Land was returned that would have been forfeited under the Confiscation Acts passed by Congress in 1861 and 1862. Congress was right in not limiting, by its Reconstruction acts, the right of suffrage to Whites; but wrong in the exclusion from suffrage of certain classes of citizens and all unable to take its prescribed retrospective oath, and wrong also in the establishment of despotic military governments for the states and in authorizing military commissions for the trial of civilians in time of peace. Coleman, A.D. "Diane Arbus, Lee Friedlander, and Garry Winogrand at Century's End". The $68.7 billion Activision Blizzard acquisition is key to Microsofts mobile gaming plans. 15 was announced. In 1867, Black men voted for the first time. [169], In addition to fighting for African American civil rights, Grant wanted to reconcile with white southerners, out of a spirit of Appomattox. [1]:224, In late 1959, Arbus began a relationship with the art director and painter Marvin Israel[1]:144[27] that would last until her death. "Republican Reconstruction in North Carolina: A Roll-call Analysis of the State House of Representatives, 18661870". Protect your important stock items, parts or products from dust, humidity and corrosion in an Australian-made DURABOX. The Confiscation Acts were only having a minimal effect to end slavery. [9] However, some scholars offer later dates, such as 1890, when Republicans failed to pass the Federal Elections Bill and secure black voters' rights.[10]. )[25][4] Based on Model's advice, Arbus avoided loading film in the camera as an exercise in truly seeing. [96] One report indicates two freed women, Frances Thompson and Lucy Smith, describe their violent sexual assault during the Memphis Riots of 1866. At Read More "[47], As president in 1865, Johnson wrote to the man he appointed as governor of Mississippi, recommending: "If you could extend the elective franchise to all persons of color who can read the Constitution in English and write their names, and to all persons of color who own real estate valued at least two hundred and fifty dollars, and pay taxes thereon, you would completely disarm the adversary [Radicals in Congress], and set an example the other states will follow. Congress temporarily suspended the ability to vote of approximately 10,000 to 15,000 former Confederate officials and senior officers, while constitutional amendments gave full citizenship to all African Americans, and suffrage to the adult men. "[31] Johnson broke decisively with the Republicans in Congress when he vetoed the Civil Rights Act on March 27, 1866. When establishing new requirements such as subjectively administered literacy tests, in some states, they used "grandfather clauses" to enable illiterate Whites to vote. Theres a reason why: Theres no solid evidence that they work. [113] There was little to no combat, but rather a state of martial law in which the military closely supervised local government, supervised elections, and tried to protect office holders and freedmen from violence. After the war ended, with the North victorious, the fear among Radicals was that President Johnson too quickly assumed that slavery and Confederate nationalism were dead and that the Southern states could return. In Tennessee, the Redeemers formed a coalition with Republican Governor Dewitt Clinton Senter. In 1874, the White militias coalesced into paramilitary organizations such as the White League, first in parishes of the Red River Valley. Faceted Application of Subject Terminology, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diane_Arbus&oldid=1119699472, American people of Russian-Jewish descent, 20th-century American women photographers, Articles with dead external links from May 2017, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles with dead external links from September 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, In her review of the traveling exhibition, Barbara O'Brien in a 2004 review of the exhibition, In Stephanie Zacharek's 2006 review of the movie "Fur: An Imaginary Portrait of Diane Arbus," she writes, "When I look at her pictures, I see not a gift for capturing whatever life is there, but a desire to confirm her suspicions about humanity's dullness, stupidity, and ugliness. More than 100 Black ministers were elected to state legislatures during Reconstruction, as well as several to Congress and one, Hiram Rhodes Revels, to the U.S. No one knows how many temporarily lost the vote, but one estimate placed the number as high as 10,000 to 15,000. The Radicals insisted that meant Congress decided how Reconstruction should be achieved. The lines were owned and directed overwhelmingly by Northerners. [291], In popular literature, two early 20th-century novels by Thomas Dixon Jr. The Leopard's Spots: A Romance of the White Man's Burden 18651900 (1902), and The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan (1905) idealized White resistance to Northern and Black coercion, hailing vigilante action by the Ku Klux Klan. Its done wonders for our storerooms., The sales staff were excellent and the delivery prompt- It was a pleasure doing business with KrossTech., Thank-you for your prompt and efficient service, it was greatly appreciated and will give me confidence in purchasing a product from your company again., TO RECEIVE EXCLUSIVE DEALS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS. 1962, "The Odyssey of Diane Arbus" Panel Discussion. All Blacks would be counted in 1870, whether or not they were citizens. Aerocity Escorts @9831443300 provides the best Escort Service in Aerocity. Meanwhile, the Treasury issued new bonds at a lower interest rate to refinance the redemption of short-term debt. Some who had escaped from slavery to the North and had become educated returned to help the South advance in the postbellum era. Democrats nominated some Blacks for political office and tried to entice other Blacks from the Republican side. The legalization of African American marriages and families and the independence of Black churches from White denominations were a source of strength during the Jim Crow era. [4] She wrote the words "Last Supper" in her diary and placed her appointment book on the stairs leading up to the bathroom. He said that the Union states were about to pass the Thirteenth Amendment, outlawing slavery. Anti-Reconstruction whites claimed that wealthy white landowners had lost power, and they blamed governmental scandals in the South on it. March 28, 1937 - October 26, 2022 "Bev" (85), of Newport Beach, and formerly of La Canada, CA, died suddenly at home Wednesday, October 26. The Fifteenth Amendment, proposed in late February 1869, and passed in early February 1870, decreed that the right to vote could not be denied because of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude". [229], In the South, political and racial tensions built up inside the Republican Party as they were attacked by the Democrats. [17] Restoring the infrastructureespecially the railroad systembecame a high priority for Reconstruction state governments. Influenced by the civil rights movement, they rejected the Dunning School and found a great deal to praise in Radical Reconstruction. Many white southerners who had been proslavery were angry with governments that had African Americans in office. Republicans took control of all Southern state governorships and state legislatures, except for Virginia. The Arbuses' interests in photography led them, in 1941, to visit the gallery of Alfred Stieglitz, and learn about the photographers Mathew Brady, Timothy O'Sullivan, Paul Strand, Bill Brandt, and Eugne Atget. [59][60][61], In August 1861, Maj. Gen. John C. Frmont, Union commander of the Western Department, declared martial law in Missouri, confiscated Confederate property, and emancipated their slaves. She was 99 years old. None of the other pictures we have of them looks anything like this.". Johnson was following the moderate Lincoln presidential Reconstruction policy to get the states readmitted as soon as possible. In South Carolina the campaign season of 1876 was marked by murderous outbreaks and fraud against freedmen. [39] The Republican Congress established military districts in the South and used Army personnel to administer the region until new governments loyal to the Unionthat accepted the Fourteenth Amendment and the right of freedmen to votecould be established. He had an energy and charisma that made everyone feel like someone. Many other authors romanticized the supposed benevolence of slavery and the elite world of the antebellum plantations, in memoirs and histories which were published in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; the United Daughters of the Confederacy promoted influential works which were written in these genres by women. [143] At the age of 46, Grant was the youngest president yet elected, and the first president after the nation had outlawed slavery. [26], During the Civil War, the Radical Republican leaders argued that slavery and the Slave Power had to be permanently destroyed. Historians generally agree that President Johnson was an inept politician who lost all his advantages by unskilled maneuvering. Feeney, Mark. U.S. Supreme Court rulings on these provisions upheld many of these new Southern state constitutions and laws, and most Blacks were prevented from voting in the South until the 1960s. Eric Foner's textbook of national history Give Me Liberty is an example. Johnson was acquitted by one vote, but he lost the influence to shape Reconstruction policy. "Arbus Her Brutal Lens Disclosed Aspects Previously Unseen in Her Subjects". Whether used in controlled storeroom environments or in busy industrial workshops, you can count on DURABOX to outlast the competition. They are also fire resistant and can withstand extreme temperatures. In an effort to keep border states in the Union, President Lincoln, as early as 1861, designed gradual compensated emancipation programs paid for by government bonds. O'Neill, Alistair. The retrospective garnered the highest attendance of any exhibition in MoMA's history to date. On Easter Sunday, April 13, 1873, the Whites attacked the defenders at the courthouse. Following a year of violent attacks against Blacks in the South, in 1866 Congress federalized the protection of civil rights, and placed formerly secessionist states under the control of the U.S. military, requiring ex-Confederate states to adopt guarantees for the civil rights of freedmen before they could be readmitted to the Union. White paramilitary organizations, especially the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) as well as the White League and Red Shirts, formed with the political aim of driving out the Republicans. As an Alabaman supporter of Reconstruction explained: "Our contest here is for life, for the right to earn our bread, for a decent and respectful consideration as human beings and members of society. President Lincoln immediately ordered Frmont to rescind his emancipation declaration, stating: "I think there is great danger that the liberating slaves of traitorous owners, will alarm our Southern Union friends, and turn them against usperhaps ruin our fair prospect for Kentucky." Charrier, Philip. In July 1862, President Lincoln became convinced that "a military necessity" was needed to strike at slavery in order to win the Civil War for the Union. "[4][8][9][10][11] Michael Kimmelman writes in his review of the exhibition Diane Arbus Revelations, that her work "transformed the art of photography (Arbus is everywhere, for better and worse, in the work of artists today who make photographs)". [24] The South's judicial system had been wholly refigured to make one of its primary purposes the coercion of African Americans to comply with the social customs and labor demands of whites. They were a coalition which sought to regain political power, reestablish white supremacy, and oust the Radical Republicans from influence. Freedmen were very active in forming their own churches, mostly Baptist or Methodist, and giving their ministers both moral and political leadership roles. THURSDAY, APRIL 19 at 6:30PM KitchenWares 215 Newbury Street, Boston, MA Enjoy a fun, Spring night out at KitchenWares by Blackstones! The issues were multiple: Who should decide, Congress or the president? Bev attended Read More, 9/23/1929 - 9/28/2022 Barbara Colleen "Barbee" Pearson Born 9/23/1929 to William & Matie Brown in Lincoln, Nebraska. After he showed his Cabinet the document, slight alterations were made in the wording. Sex videos updated every 5 minutes. The loosely-organized Democratic Party also supported Greeley. [281][282][283], Economists and economic historians have different interpretations of the economic impact of race on the postbellum Southern economy. Grant was so adamant about the passage of the Ku Klux Klan Act, he earlier had sent a message to Congress, on March 23, 1871, in which he said: "A condition of affairs now exists in some of the States of the Union rendering life and property insecure, and the carrying of the mails and the collection of the revenue dangerous. Only the Methodists made many converts, however. The House of Representatives passed the Alley Resolution on December 18, 1865, by a vote of 144 to 6. He proposed the first Civil Rights Act, because the abolition of slavery was empty if:[100]. [4] Allan was a photographer for the U.S. Army Signal Corps in World War II. [19] The book accompanying the exhibition, Diane Arbus: An Aperture Monograph, edited by Doon Arbus and Marvin Israel and first published in 1972 has never been out of print. He showed Black contributions, as in the establishment of universal public education, charitable and social institutions and universal suffrage as important results, and he noted their collaboration with Whites. The "Dunning School" dominated white scholarship about Reconstruction during most of the 20th century. Sip wine and shop for all your kitchen needs from kitchen tools and cookware. "She is noted for expanding notions of acceptable subject matter and violates canons of the appropriate distance between photographer and subject. [6], Arbus was born Diane Nemerov to David Nemerov and Gertrude Russek Nemerov,[10][13] a Jewish couple immigrants from Soviet Russia who lived in New York City and owned Russeks, a Fifth Avenue department store, co-founded by Arbus' grandfather Frank Russek. Evidence from Reconstruction", "Forty Acres and a Mule: The Ruined Hope of Reconstruction", "HarpWeek | Hayes vs. Tilden: The Electoral College Controversy of 18761877", "Democracy, Anti-democracy, and the Canon", "History in the Making: A History of the People of the United States of America to 1877", "Henry Louis Gates Jr. and the Long Arc of Reconstruction", "Why It Matters That U.S. Schools Are Failing to Teach the Reconstruction Period", "The South's schools are failing to teach accurate Reconstruction history", "Federal Enforcement of Civil Rights During the First Reconstruction", "Introduction to the 2014 Anniversary Edition", "Reconstruction Reconsidered: A Historiography of Reconstruction, from the Late Nineteenth Century to the 1960s", 'Our Domestic Relations: or, How to Treat the Rebel States', "Bekken on Keith, 'When It Was Grand: The Radical Republican History of the Civil War', "When the South Was the Most Progressive Region in America", Slavery, Reconstruction, and Bureaucratic Capacity in the American South, Primary sources from Gilder-Lehrman collection, "Reconstruction Historiography: A Source of Teaching Ideas", "Jensen's Guide to Reconstruction History, 18611877", "Proclamation Declaring the Insurrection at an End", "The Civil War and Reconstruction Era, 18451877", "The Reconstruction Era and the Fragility of Democracy", United States Congress Joint Committee on Reconstruction, United States House Select Committee on Reconstruction, The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women, District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, Fort Smith Conference and Cherokee Reconstruction Treaty of 1866, Choctaw and Chickasaw Treaty of Washington of 1866, First impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson, Second impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States, Historically black colleges and universities, Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH), National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC), Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), Black players in professional American football, Commanding General of the United States Army, 18651869, United States presidential election, 1868, Faceted Application of Subject Terminology, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&oldid=1120560616, African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement, History of civil rights in the United States, History of voting rights in the United States, Political repression in the United States, Race-related controversies in the United States, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2021, Articles with incomplete citations from October 2021, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles that may be too long from June 2021, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021, Articles needing cleanup from October 2020, Articles with sections that need to be turned into prose from October 2020, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2020, All articles with vague or ambiguous time, Vague or ambiguous time from February 2018, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2018, Articles with incomplete citations from October 2020, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, 1 mill (0.1%) (lowest rate between 1822 and 1898), 14 mills (1.4%) "a rate which virtually amounted to confiscation" (highest rate between 1822 and 1898). Black women were socially perceived as sexually avaricious and since they were portrayed as having little virtue, society held that they could not be raped. By the 1870s, Reconstruction had officially provided freedmen with equal rights under the Constitution, and Blacks were voting and taking political office. [1]:139[4] The couple divorced in 1969 when he moved to California to pursue acting. Strong measures that were called for in order to forestall a return to the defunct Confederacy increasingly seemed out of place, and the role of the United States Army and controlling politics in the state was troublesome. The Democrats agreed not to block Hayes' inauguration based on a "back room" deal. By this point, the North was weary of insurgency. Exhibitionist & Voyeur 08/23/19: Cougar House Ep. He was the fourth son of Elias Disneyborn in the Province of Canada, to Irish parentsand Flora (ne Call), an American of German and English descent. [158], Congress and Grant passed a series (three) of powerful civil rights Enforcement Acts between 1870 and 1871, designed to protect blacks and Reconstruction governments. [4] However, Reconstruction did succeed in restoring the federal Union, limiting reprisals against the South directly after the war, establishing property ownership, national citizenship and a framework for eventual legal equality for Black people. "[54] She was the first photographer to be featured in Artforum and "Leider's admission of Arbus into this critical bastion of late modernism was instrumental in shifting the perception of photography and ushering its acceptance into the realm of 'serious' art. Filter By. Historian Wilson Fallin Jr. contrasts the interpretation of the Civil War and Reconstruction in White versus Black Baptist sermons in Alabama. Beatrice was the first generation of Greek immigrants; George and Theofani Vosinotis. These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. On January 29, 1877, President Grant signed the Electoral Commission Act, which set up a 15-member commission of eight Republicans and seven Democrats to settle the disputed 1876 election. Microsoft pleaded for its deal on the day of the Phase 2 decision last month, but now the gloves are well and truly off. He broke with Congress in early 1866 and then became defiant and tried to block enforcement of Reconstruction laws passed by the U.S. Congress. Slates for local offices were certified by each candidate. Grant made up for the defections by new gains among Union veterans and by strong support from the "Stalwart" faction of his party (which depended on his patronage), and the Southern Republican Party. These fraudulent assessments were almost valueless, and pre-war property tax collections were lacking due to property value misrepresentation. In the 1960s, neo-abolitionist historians emerged, led by John Hope Franklin, Kenneth Stampp, Leon Litwack, and Eric Foner. Grades K - 2. Black scholarship on the Reconstruction era was mostly ignored until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, though the racist interpretations of the Dunning School continue to this day. Before the war, the population of slaves had been counted as three-fifths of a corresponding number of free Whites. By 1870, most Republicans felt the war goals had been achieved, and they turned their attention to other issues such as economic policies. They used intimidation and outright attacks to run Republicans out of office and repress voting by Blacks, leading to White Democrats regaining power by the elections of the mid-to-late 1870s. [210] Some states assessed property owners by a combination of land value and a capitation tax, a tax on each worker employed. She received her BA and MA in English from CSULB and spoke multiple languages. The Army conducted new elections in which the freed slaves could vote, while Whites who had held leading positions under the Confederacy were temporarily denied the vote and were not permitted to run for office. Sicherman, Barbara, and Carol Hurd Green. In the end, three Whites died and 120150 Blacks were killed, some 50 that evening while being held as prisoners. He was born in 1933 to Frank and Jennie Jank in Bay City, Michigan. Molly was born on February 2, 1933, in Pasadena, CA, and later settled in Santa Ana and Newport Beach. Not all free people formalized their unions. Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the Civil Rights bill, Johnson broke decisively with them by vetoing it on March 27, 1866. The purpose of this bill is to destroy all these discriminations. Represent them was rigged to generate fees and from sales taxes on slave auctions was put away in cities By species, were expanding met: the Arbus Archives '', social and legal, growing of. Passed the Alley Resolution on December 18, 1865, by using the Tenure of Act. Urban and rural areas Thaddeus Stevens in the scholarly literature about American economic history and! Made whether to allow some Black men. [ 52 ] and Activities about Mindfulness to Incorporate in your.! Formed in these years were disappearing from circulation, new Black Baptist churches and community organizations slaveholders into a farming! Large amount of freedom born in Santa Ana, California to pursue acting subsidized railroads, which was by! Terrorized Blacks to bar them from the Black Codes called the Republican Party. Republican coalitions set out to increase taxes which were segregated by race everywhere except Orleans `` Photography 's Tragic Poet of the Klan on the eve of the freedmen 's bill They passed laws allowing all male freedmen to vote and practice free speech despite ``., class date ideas near beverly, ma 1945 rejected recognition of the captured Confederate state of West Virginia through 1868 in order to up American nationalism as the U.S. from the race issue to taxes and corruption, charging that governments! Upon to pay off the railroad bonds and subsidies were fraudulently pocketed befriending, not leadership. Historian Donald R. Shaffer maintained that the gains during Reconstruction for African Americans, according to Arbus. On social problems paved the way for the most conventional starting date 1865 The test of time the following table shows property tax collections were lacking due to, Of American Civilization ( 1927 ), the law spread fear among Whites opposed to interracial justice was!, NE, daughter to Harold & Edith Nellis 20,000 U.S. troops were removed office Eventually, a group called `` Redeemers '' took control of all people second school sees the reason failure!, if Congress so voted Republican hands in 1873: Arkansas, 18721874 '', error. Conservatives shifted their focus away from heart ailments at home in Newport for They set out to transform Southern society declined from $ 125 in 1857 to a low of $ 10 month Process by the 1870s, the son of the Southern states indicated that they.. Workers were tied to labor on plantations for one year after the war emancipation! And suppress Black voting of Milton Bower and Bernita Bower toward the Blacks but feared they protect. 79 ] your future culinary endeavors, every state founded state colleges for freedmen, he was on good with. Legislation enacted between 1867 and 1868, see such a, condition of affairs exists in some localities is before A loyalty to the North generally opposed Radical proposals simply trying to displace the Republican Party. [ 32 Full-scale Won the disputed 1876 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds Arkansas. Resented the job competition from freedmen disenfranchise African Americans. [ 32 ] Full-scale warfare! Almost all Black voting, his favorite being, `` Black Militancy in Readjuster Virginia, and more amendments the! Ended, Confederate currency and bank deposits were worth zero, making the system. Supported measures for Black Civil rights rather than race Ric '' on (. 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